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"Aerospace:The Flight of
Discovery"
Student's Guide
Chapter 1
AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT
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STRUCTURE OF AN AIRPLANE
page 1-1
| Most aircraft are composed of the following
parts:
Fuselage (body)
Wings (airfoil)
Empennage (tail)
Landing Gear
Power Plant
|
 |
Now let's take a closer look at each of these parts that
make up an airplane.
FUSELAGE
The body of the airplane is called the fuselage. The
fuselage must be strong and streamlined, to enable it to withstand the forces
that are created in flight.
The fuselage serves several functions. It is the attachment point for
the other major components. It houses the cabin, the flight crew, passengers,
and cargo.
WINGS (The Airfoil)
The wing is a framework made up of spars, ribs and (possibly)
stringers.
Spars are the main
strength members of the wing
and run along the length of the wing.
Ribs run from the
leading edge to the rear of the
wing and support the covering and provide the airfoil
shape (camber) that allows the wing to create lift.
Wings generally have two types of control surfaces:
Ailerons extend from about
the midpoint of each wing outward to the tip. They move in opposite directions;
when one aileron goes up, the other goes down.
Flaps have two purposes:
when they are lowered they increase lift and drag allowing the airplane to fly
at slower speeds. They are used for landing and in some airplanes also for
takeoff. They extend outward from the fuselage to the midpoint of each wing.
They always move together. If one flap is down, the other is down.
EMPENNAGE (Tail Assembly)
The empennage, commonly called the tail assembly, is the rear section of
the body of the airplane. Its main purpose is to give stability to the aircraft.
It consists of:
Horizontal Stabilizer --
fixed part that prevents the airplane from pitching
up or down.
Elevator --
moveable control surface attached to the rear (aft) of the horizontal
stabilizer used to control the up-and-down motion of the aircraft's
nose.
Vertical Stabilizer --
fixed part that prevents the aircraft from yawing back and forth.
Rudder
-- movable control surface attached to the rear of the vertical stabilizer.
Used to counter adverse yaw when turning the aircraft.
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LANDING GEAR
Page 1-4
|
| Three common types of landing gear: |
Conventional
has two wheels forward and a third small wheel at the tail. Most often
seen on older light aircraft and commonly known as a "taildragger".
|
Tricycle has
two main wheels and a nosewheel. Most modern light aircraft use
this arrangement.
|
Tandem, used
for large aircraft, has two sets of wheels located one behind the
other on the fuselage. The B-52 shown below uses tandem landing
gear, as do most large airliners like the Boeing 747, 767, 777 and the
DC-10.
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|
Conventional
|
 |
Tandem |
POWERPLANT
Page 1-4 |
| The powerplant can be an
engine and propeller combination, a jet engine, or a combination of a
jet engine with a propeller attached, called a turboprop. The
C-130 cargo aircraft with four jet engines with attached propellers is
an example of a turboprop aircraft. The F-16 is an example of a
"pure" jet powerplant. The ram jet and the rocket engine are
also powerplants. |
In the engine/propeller combination
powerplant the engine drives the propeller which pulls the aircraft
through the air.
|
A jet powerplant produces
thrust from its exhaust gases which push the aircraft through the air.
|
A turboprop powerplant uses
a jet engine to drive a propeller to pull that aircraft through the
air. A turboprop also produces a small amount of thrust (push) from
its jet exhaust.
|
All powerplants usually also drive
attached accessory components to produce electrical power.
|
STRESS
Page 1-1
Five types of stress
act on the aircraft in flight:
Tension tends to
pull things apart.
Compression tends to push materials together
Bending is
a combination of tension and compression.
Shear is caused by forces
tending to slip or slide one part of a material in respect to another
part.
Torsion tends to distort by twisting.
|
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CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE FLIGHT ATMOSPHERE
Page 1-6 |
The atmosphere is composed of a mixture of gases,
mostly Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%). All gases have certain
characteristics: weight, density, temperature, pressure, and mass.
|
| COMPARING
TEMPERATURE AND DENSITY |
|
As temperature decreases the density
of air increases.
As the temperature of air increases
the density decreases.
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HUMIDITY
Page 1-8 |
Relative humidity
is the ratio of the amount of water vapor a sample of air holds to the
amount it can hold when saturated.
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TEMPERATURE
Page 1 -8 |
Celsius and Fahrenheit
On the Celsius scale water freezes at 0 degrees and boils at 100
degrees.
On the Fahrenheit scale water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at
212 degrees.
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FOUR
FORCES OF FLIGHT
Page 1-11 & 1-12 |
 |
During flight the four forces acting on the airplane
are:
Lift is the
upward force created by the effect of airflow as it passes over and
under the wings. It supports the airplane in flight.
Weight is a
downward force caused by the pull of gravity. It opposes lift.
Thrust is the
forward force generated by the propeller and engine which propels the
airplane through the air.
Drag is the
rearward force that limits the speed of the airplane.
|
AIRFOILS
Page 1-9 & figure1-12 |
|
An airfoil is any part of an airplane that is
designed to produce lift.
Leading Edge
or front of an airfoil is the portion that meets the air first.
Trailing Edge
is the rear of the airfoil.
Chord
of an airfoil is an imaginary straight line drawn through the airfoil
from its leading edge to its trailing edge.
Camber
of an airfoil is the characteristic curve of its upper or lower
surface. It is the camber that gives the airfoil the ability to create
lift.
|
BERNOULLI'S
PRINCIPLE
Page 1-10 |
 |
 |
|
Bernoulli's principle: As
the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases.
|
The increase in velocity of air (a fluid) across the top of the
wing produces a decrease in pressure on the top of the airfoil. This
decrease in pressure on the top of the airfoil causes lift. |
RELATIVE
WIND
Page 1-10 |
 |
|
Relative wind is
the airflow produced by the aircraft moving through the air. As
diagrammed above, the relative wind stays constant for any given
airspeed, regardless of weather the airplane is climbing,
descending, or in level flight.
|
|
 |
Angle of Incidence is
permanently fixed when the aircraft is designed
|
| Angle of Incidence
is the angle between the chord line and the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft. It is part of the aircraft design and never changes,
regardless of flying conditions. |
ANGLE OF ATTACK
Page 1-11
 |
| Angle of
attack is a term used to express the relationship
between an airfoil's chord and the direction of its encounter with the
relative wind. Unlike the angle of incidence, an airfoil's angle of
attack can change during flight, most often in response to changes in
airspeed. As the bottom row in the picture above shows, angle of
attack expresses only the angle between the airfoil's chord and the
relative wind without regard to the direction of the flight path
(climbing, level flight, or descending) of the aircraft. |
LIFT
Page.1-11,1-12 |
| Induced Lift
is an increase in velocity that reduces the pressure on the top
of the wing; therefore, lift is induced. It is also called
airfoil lift or Bernoulli's lift. |
| Dynamic Lift
is the pressure of the air impacting against the lower surface
of an airfoil. |
Drag
Page 1-15, 1-16 |
| Drag is caused
by the resistance of the air to any aircraft surface that deflects or
interferes with the smooth airflow around the airplane. |
Drag is present all the time and is defined as the
force which opposes thrust.
Induced drag is
the unavoidable by-product of lift and increases as the angle of attack
increases.
Parasite Drag is
all drag other than induced drag. This type of drag includes
skin-friction drag, friction between the outer surfaces of the
aircraft and the air through which it moves, and form drag,
resistance to the air to the shape of the aircraft. Form drag can be
reduced by streamlining the aircraft shape.
|
AXES OF
ROTATION
Page 1-16, 1-17 & Figure 1-22
|
| All maneuvering flight takes
place around one or more of three axes of rotation. |
Longitudinal axis extends
lengthwise from the nose through the tail. Movement about the
longitudinal axis is called roll. Roll is controlled by
the ailerons.
|
Lateral axis
extends crosswise from wingtip through wingtip. Movement about the
lateral axis is called pitch. Pitch is controlled by the
elevator.
|
Vertical axis
passes vertically through the center of gravity (when the aircraft is
in level flight). Movement about the vertical axis is called yaw. Yaw
is controlled by the rudder.
|
BASIC
FLIGHT MANEUVERS
Page 1-21& 1-22 |
| Basic flight maneuvers include climbs,
descents, turns, and combinations of these. |
In straight-and-level flight, the wings are
kept level and the altitude and heading are constant.
(Note: The FAA
considers straight and level flight to also be a basic flight maneuver.) |
| Climbs result from up elevator or
an addition of power. |
| Descents result from down elevator or a
reduction in power. |
| Turns can be gentle, medium, or
steep depending on the amount of bank used. They can be made when
climbing, descending, or in level flight. |
LANDING
Page 1-22 |
| Steps involved in landing a light airplane: |
- Approach
- "Roundout" (level off at start of the flare)
- Flare (slowing down while increasing the angle of attack)
- Touchdown (on main gear)
|
|
STALLS
Page. 1-22
|
| Sufficient airspeed must be maintained in flight to
produce enough lift to support the airplane without requiring too large
an angle of attack. At a specific angle of
attack, called the critical angle of attack, air going over a wing will
separate from the wing or "burble" causing the wing to lose
its lift (stall). The airspeed at which at which the
wing will not support the airplane without exceeding the critical angle
of attack is called the stalling speed. This speed will vary with
changes in wing configuration (flap position) and load factors (Gs). For
example, an aircraft that stalls (exceeds the critical angle of attack)
in straight and level flight with flaps retracted at 60 MPH, will
stall at 40 MPH with full flaps extended. An aircraft in a level
steep-banked turn will stall at a higher airspeed than it would in
straight and level flight. The stalling speed varies with
conditions, but a stall will occur only
when the wing's critical angle of attack is exceeded. |
|
Increasing the Angle of Attack to the Stall Point
|
 |
|
The picture above shows a normal airfoil during a
typical cruise profile. The angle of attack (denoted between the arrows)
is small and the airflow over the wing is smooth, producing lift. No
stall condition exists.
|
|
In the picture above, the angle of attack has been
increased and is now closer to/approaching the critical angle of attack.
Airflow above the wing is becoming uneven. However, the angle is still
less than the critical angle, so lift is still being produced by the
wing. No stall condition exists.
|
 |
|
| In the
picture above, the wing has now exceeded
its critical angle of attack. The uneven airflow over
the top of the wing has broken into a swirling air mass that can not
produce lift. The wing (airfoil) is "stalled". |
|
Relationship
Between the Flight Instruments
Page 1-23, 24 &25
|
| The altimeter
tells how high (above sea level) the aircraft is flying. |
| The turn-and-slip
indicator tells the pilot the direction, rate,
and quality of the turn. |
| The vertical speed
indicator (VSI) shows the pilot the rate
of speed the airplane is climbing, descending. |
| The attitude indicator
is a gyroscopic instrument that provides a horizon that moves about so
that it always shows the relationship of the horizon to the
pitch (nose up and down) and the bank (wing
high, level or low) of the aircraft . |
| The airspeed indicator
tells the pilot the speed of the aircraft as it travels through the air. |
ENERGY
Page 1-26 |
Energy is "the capacity for doing work
and overcoming resistance. "
Potential energy is
stored energy.
Kinetic energy
is active energy.
|
| When potential energy is released from its source
and causes movement of an object, it becomes kinetic energy. |
RECIPROCATING
ENGINE
Page 1-27 |
The seven major parts are:
1. Cylinders
2. Pistons
3. Connecting rods
4. Crank shaft
5. Valves
6. Spark Plugs
7. Valve operating mechanism (cams)
|
PISTONS
Page 1-27 & Figure 1-35 |
| In a reciprocating engine, the pistons are attached
to the crankshaft by the connecting rod.
NOTE: Review the crankshaft, connecting rod, and piston
arrangement in Figure 1- 35 of the text.
|
FOUR-STROKE
FIVE-EVENT CYCLE
Page 1-28 & Figure 1-36 |
 |
| During the intake
stroke, the intake valve opens and
the vacuum causes a mixture of fuel and air to be drawn into the
cylinder. |
 |
| During the compression
stroke, fuel and air mixture is compressed. |
 |
| During the power
stroke, both valves are closed and
the spark plug ignites the fuel-air mixture, which explodes, forcing
the piston down. |
 |
| During the exhaust
stroke, the exhaust valve is opened
and the burned gases are forced out. They flow out through the muffler
and the exhaust pipe. |
AIRCRAFT
SYSTEMS
Page 1-31 |
| The carburetor
in the aircraft's engine mixes the aviation gasoline with air
for the most desirable combination for ignition and burning. |
| On the majority of modern aircraft, fuel
tanks are located in the wings. Fuel is forced from the tanks
into the carburetor where it is mixed with air and drawn into the intake
manifold and cylinders. |
| Fuel Lines -
There is usually one fuel line leading from each fuel
tank to the engine |
| Fuel Pump
- feeds fuel under positive pressure to the
engine. |
| Fuel injection
replaces the carburetor in some engines. Fuel is
injected directly into the combustion chamber. Since fuel injected
engines have no carburetor, they do not suffer from carburetor icing. |
IGNITION
SYSTEM
Page 1-33, 1-34 & Figure 1-41 |
| The ignition system in a reciprocating aircraft
engine is actually a double system with
two magnetos, two distributors. Each cylinder has two spark
plugs. To ignite the fuel and air mixture in the cylinder chamber, the
mixture receives an electrical spark. The magneto provides the
electrical charge to the spark plug. |
LUBRICATION
SYSTEMS
Page 1-35 |
| The primary function of a
lubrication systems is to reduce fiction. |
| It also helps to cool
the engine. |
| Seal
various clearances in the engine. |
| Clean
the engine. |
COOLING
SYSTEMS
Page 1-35 |
| All reciprocating engines generate heat; therefore,
they need cooling systems to keep the engine from overheating. |
| There are two types of cooling
systems: water cooling and
air cooling systems. |
| Modern aircraft reciprocating engines use an
air-cooling system. |
| ENGINE
INSTRUMENTS |
|
The three basic engine instruments are:
|
The tachometer,
which measures the speed of the engine in revolutions
per minute.
|
The oil pressure gauge,
which measures oil pressure while the engine is in operation.
|
The oil temperature gauge,
which measures oil temperature while the engine is in operation.
|
PROPELLERS
Page 1-38 |
 |
The propeller converts energy from the engine into forward
thrust. It has an airfoil cross-section.
The wing provides lift upward while the propeller (an airfoil)
provides lift forward (thrust).
|
AIRCRAFT
TURBINE AND RAMJET ENGINES
Page. 1-39 & through 1-41 |
|
| Turbojet Engines The
turbojet uses a series of fan-like compressor blades to bring air into
the front of the engine and compress it (two-stage compressor
section). Compressed air then flows rearward into combustion
chambers where fuel is mixed with the air and ignited (burner
section). Hot high-velocity gases then leave the burner
section, passing through and spinning a turbine wheel (turbine
section). This wheel drives the compressor at the front of the
engine. The hot gases exit the turbine into the exhaust section
which is shaped to give additional acceleration to the gases and
increase the thrust of the engine. |
| The thrust output of the
engine is regulated by a fuel control (controlled by the pilot's
throttle) which meters fuel to the burner section. The more fuel that is
sprayed into the burner section combustion chambers, the more thrust
produced at the exhaust section. The turbojet has few moving parts
and is very reliable. |
| Some turbojet fighter aircraft are also equipped to
inject more fuel into the hot exhaust gas flow to gain even more exhaust
gas acceleration and a dramatic increase in thrust when required. This
mechanism is called an afterburner and produces the
lovely blue flame you see as the F-16 rotates for an evening takeoff.
The afterburner burns an enormous amount of fuel and is therefore used
only when very high thrust is required, e.g., during takeoff. |
|
|
Turbofan engines are
an improvement over the older turbojet engine and have better all-around
performance at a lower rate of fuel consumption, plus less noise
resulting from its operation. Some advantages of a Turbofan engine are:
- It operates economically and more
efficiently than a turbojet engine at low altitudes and low
airspeeds.
- When the fan burner is on the thrust is
doubled, providing greater thrust when needed, e.g., takeoff and
climb.
- The turbofan engine is quieter
than the older turbojet engines.
|
|
|
| The turboprop engine
is a successful effort to combine the best features of
turbojet and propeller aircraft. In turboprops, a turbine
engine drives a propeller. |
| The ramjet engine
is the simplest type of the all-jet engines because it has no moving
parts. However, a ramjet engine will not operate until it is first
moving rapidly through the air. For this reason the ramjet engine has a
limited application. |
NAVIGATION
Page 1-43 |
|
Navigation requires the accurate
measurement of: direction,distance, and
time.
|
| Distance is measured on the map by using the map's
scale. Direction is determined using by a compass. Time is measured by
using a clock. |
LATITUDE
& LONGITUDE
Page 1-45 |
 |
| In the Earth's reference system, the lines that run:
east and west are called parallels
of latitude because they are parallel with the equator.
Each of these parallel lines forms a circle on the face of the earth.
Each one is a constant distance north or south of the equator. the
equator is latitude 0 degrees and the poles are located at 90 degrees
latitude. |
| Lines running north and south,
passing through the North and South poles, are called meridians
of longitude. Meridians run perpendicular to the
equator. The starting point, or 0 degree meridian, is the
one passing through Greenwich, England. It is called the
prime meridian. the prime meridian serves as the starting point of
east-west measurement. |
24 HOUR
CLOCK
Page 1-47 |
 |
| Aviators uses the 24 hour clock. This method
prevents confusion between AM and PM. Each minute of the day is
represented as a four digit number. The first two digits are the
number of hours past midnight, and the second two digits are the number
of minutes. Each digit is pronounced separately with
"hours" at the end.
The day starts at midnight (0000, "zero zero zero zero
hours"
|
Here are some examples times during the day:
1:12 am = 0112 ("zero one one two hours")
06:30 am = 0630 ("zero six three zero hours"
12 noon = 1200 ("one two zero zero hours" or
"twelve hundred hours")
1:00 pm - 1300 ("one three zero zero hours", or
" thirteen hundred hours")
6:03 pm = 1803 ("one eight zero three hours")
For time from noon to midnight, just add 12 to the hours to
get the 24 hour clock time. 6:00 pm + 12 = 1800 hours.
100:00 pm = 2200 ("twenty-two hundred hours")
midnight = 0000
One minute after midnight = 0001
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AERONAUTICAL
CHARTS
Page 1-49 |
Sectional Chart |
| The most commonly used aeronautical chart is
called the sectional aeronautical chart.
Sectionals, as they are known, are conic
projections and each one represents a small portion of Earth's
surface.
Some of the data on a chart is superimposed.
Relief depicts elevations and is shown by different color
tints, contour lines, and shading.
Hydrographic features: streams, rivers, lakes and oceans.
Cultural features show the man-made features on the landscape
like towns, railroads, power lines and other such objects normally
visible from the air.
|
COMPASS
Ref. pages. 1-52 & 53 |
| The four cardinal points of the
compass are north, east, south, and west. These are also known on the
360 degree compass as: 360 degrees (north), 90 degrees (east), 180
degrees (south), and 270 degrees (west).
Halfway between each of these cardinal points are the four
intercardinal points: northeast, southeast,northwest, and
southwest.
|
Locations of the North Pole (true north, TN) and the Magnetic North Pole
(MN) |
| All compass needles point towards a large mass of
magnetic rock which is in the earth not far from the North Pole.
This point is called magnetic north.
The compass error that is caused by the magnetic north
pole and the geographic North Pole being located at different places is
called magnetic variation. |
PILOTAGE
NAVIGATION
Page 1-54 |
| Pilotage navigation means
navigating by reference to visible
landmarks.
This can be as basic as
Following a highway or railroad in unfamiliar areas:
Using a sectional chart as backup to identify landmarks on the
ground.
Checkpoint - the place over which the airplane should be at a
certain predetermined time.
|
DEAD
RECKONING
Page 1-56 |
| Dead reckoning
navigation is to know by preflight
planning and inflight checking, the position of the aircraft at any
given time. This is accomplished by calculation, the measuring and
keeping account of such navigational factors as heading,
distance, time, aircraft speed, and wind direction and velocity. |
Factors used in Dead Reckoning
(DR) are:
True course -- measured from true
north which the aircraft flies from origin to its destination.
True airspeed -- speed of
aircraft through the air.
Wind direction -- measured from
true north from which the wind is blowing.
Wind velocity -- speed of the
wind.
True heading -- measured from
true north in which the aircraft is pointed.
Groundspeed -- speed aircraft
travels over the ground.
|
VECTORS
Page 1-57 |
| A vector is a line which has both direction
and magnitude. |
VOR
RADIO NAVIGATION
Page 1-60 |
|
VOR (Very-high-frequency
Omnidirectional Radio) is the most extensively used radio navigation
system used for aircraft navigation. By the way, Omnidirectional
is a fancy word for all directions.
A VOR station transmits radio beams called
radials which extend out from VOR stations like
spokes on a wheel. Each radial is identified by its magnetic direction
measured from the station. For example, the radial extending from the
station to magnetic South is called the 180 degree radial.
Pilots can fly to and from a VOR station simply by
following the proper radial.
The VOR receiver in the aircraft has the following
components:
Frequency selector, is used to tune the
receiver to a desired VOR station.
Course selector, selects the desired the
proper course to (or from) a VOR station.
To-From indicator, tells whether the selected
course, if flown, is toward or away from the selected VOR station.
Left-Right indicator tells pilots if they are
on course or if they are to the left or right of the course.
|
AIRWAYS
Page 1-65 |
|
Aircraft flying in FAA controlled airspace normally
operate on three dimensional "air highways" These
three dimensional "air highways" are called Airways and
are depicted on air navigational charts. There are two classes of
airways:
Low-altitude airways
(1,200 feet above the surface to 18,000 feet above mean sea level--MSL)
are known as Victor airways based on the locations of VOR radio
navigation stations.
High altitude airways
(18,000MSL to 45,000MSL) are also based on VOR stations, but because
of their higher altitude and often greater speed, pilots are able to
use VOR stations at greater distances from the aircraft. Pilots who
fly the high altitude airways must also fly by Instrument Flight
Rules--IFR.
|
AIRSPACE
Page 1-62 |
| Editor's Note: What follows from this point to
the end of Chapter One is a fairly detailed description of types and
classes of airspace, types of airports and runways. I suggest you read
this material for a general understanding and leave a detailed knowledge
for your 747 upgrade training. |
| Prohibited airspace - means that a
pilot must avoid it. It is clearly marked on all types of aeronautical
charts.
Restricted airspace - means that at certain
times all aircraft flight within the area is prohibited.
Warning and alert areas - mean that pilots are
expected to exercise extreme caution when flying through such areas.
These are clearly marked on aeronautical charts.
|
AIRSPACE
&AIRWAYS
Page 1-61 |
|
Controlled Airspace -- When an airplane is
flying in or through controlled airspace, it is subject to control by
FAA's air traffic controllers.
The largest area of controlled airspace is called the Continental
Control Area.
Uncontrolled Airspace -- Also has rules and
restrictions covered under FAA's air traffic controllers. But, there
aren't as many rules and restrictions as for controlled airspace.
Types of Controlled Airspace:
Classes
Class A, B, C, D, and E controlled airspace.
Special Use Airspace
Prohibited Area
Restricted Area
Warning Area
Military Operations Area (MOA)
Alert Area
Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ)
Temporary Flight Restrictions
Other
Airport Advisory Area
Wildlife/Wildemess/Primitive Areas
Class G
Class A Airspace
Generally, that airspace from 18,000 feet MSL (Mean Sea
Level) up to and including Fight Level 600, including the airspace
overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48
contiguous States and Alaska. All flights are IFR (Instrument Flight
Rules) in this airspace and altimeters are set to 29.92". Mode C
transponders are required in this airspace. This is the region of the
Jet Airways and most commercial airline traffic.
Class B Airspace
Generally, that airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL
surrounding the nation's busiest airports in terms of airport operations
or passenger emplanements. The configuration for each Class B airspace
area is individually tailored and consists of a surface area and two or
more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside down wedding
cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures
once an aircraft enters the airspace. An Air Traffic Control (ATC)
clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, and all
aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services within the
airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR operations is
"clear of clouds."
a) Two-way radio communications.
b) VOR receiver.
c) Mode C transponder.
d) Private Pilot certificate or better (with certain
exceptions for student pilots, as noted in FAR 61.95).
Mode C transponder equipment is also required within 30 nautical
miles (NM) of a Terminal Control Area primary airport from the surface
to 10,000 ft. MSL (and above 10,000 ft. everywhere).
Class C Airspace
Generally, that airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above
the airport elevation (charted in Mean Sea Level) surrounding those
airports that have an operational control tower serviced by a radar
approach control and that have a certain number of IFR operations or
passenger . Although the configuration of each Class C airspace area is
individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of a surface area
with a 5 nm radius, and an outer area with a 10 nm radius that extends
from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation. Pilots must
establish two-way radio communications with the ATC facility prior to
entering the airspace and thereafter maintain those communications while
within the airspace. Surrounding the Class C airspace (within a 20 nm
radius from the airport) is the OUTER AREA, where pilot
participation is optional. Radar service is available in the OUTER
AREA once communications has been established with Air Traffic
Control (ATC).
Class D Airspace
Generally, that airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet above
the airport elevation (charted in Mean Sea Level) surrounding those
airports that have an operational control tower. The configuration of
each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and when instrument
procedures are published, the airspace will normally be designed to
contain those procedures. Unless otherwise authorized, each person must
establish two-way radio communications with the Air Traffic Control (ATC)
facility providing air traffic services prior to entering the airspace
and thereafter maintain those communications while in the airspace. No
separation services are provided to VFR (Visual Flight Rules) aircraft.
Class E Airspace
Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, Class B, Class C, or
Class D, and it is controlled airspace, it is Class E
airspace. Class E airspace extends upward from either the surface or a
designated altitude to an overlying or adjacent controlled airspace.
Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class E airspace begins at 14,500
feet MSL over the United States. Class E airspace does not include the
airspace at 18,000 feet MSL and above.
Class G Airspace
All airspace not designated as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class
D, or Class E airspace, is deemed to be uncontrolled airspace,
and is designated as Class G airspace.
Special Use Airspace
Each sectional chart in the US. contains a
listing of all the special use airspace contained within that chart. The
listing also identifies the controlling agency. Special use airspace has
seven categories:
Prohibited Area (P)
Prohibited airspace is a portion of airspace
within which aircraft operations are explicitly prohibited. Permission
to penetrate a Prohibited Area is not granted.
Restricted Area (R)
This is special use airspace with restricted
access. Restricted Areas denote the existence of unusual aircraft
hazards, e.g., missile and gunnery activity. Penetration of Restricted
Areas may be granted at times by the controlling agency
Warning Area (W)
Warning Areas exist in airspace overlying international waters.
These areas lie beyond the three-mile limit offshore. Warning areas
typically contain hazards similar to those found in Restricted Areas.
Military Operations Area (MOA)
MOAs are areas of defined vertical and lateral
boundaries established for military training activities. Permission is
not required prior to penetrating an MOA but pilots should exercise
extreme caution. Pilots should contact the nearest FAA Flight Service
Station to obtain information regarding current activities in an MOA
prior to departure.
Alert Area (A)
Alert Areas typically contain a high volume of
pilot training or unusual type of aerial activity. Flight within Alert
Areas is not restricted, but pilots should exercise extreme caution.
Pilots are fully responsible for collision avoidance in Alert Areas.
Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ)
Air Defense Identification Zones have been established to
facilitate early identification of all aircraft entering into or
operating in the vicinity of the U.S. All aircraft entering domestic
airspace must provide for identification prior to entry
Temporary Flight Restrictions
Temporary flight restrictions are usually issued
by NOTAM to protect persons/property from a hazard associated with
events on the ground - such as toxic spills., volcanic eruptions, forest
fires, or any event that might attract sightseers -when low flying
aircraft would magnify that hazard.
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AIRPORTS
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There are three types of airports
- Civil
- Military.
- Joint-Use (Civilian and Military)
On a sectional chart:
A blue symbol indicates that the airport has a control tower.
Military airports are identified by the abbreviations AFB, NAS,
AAF, etc.
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